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Written by: Efrain A. Miranda, Ph.D.

Published: December 29, 2025

This article is part of the series "A Moment in History" where we honor those who have contributed to the growth of medical knowledge in the areas of anatomy, medicine, surgery, and medical research.

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Giovanni Paolo Mascagni (1755-1815). Italian physician and anatomist whose meticulous research and illustrations revolutionized the understanding of the lymphatic system. Born in the mid-18th century, Mascagni's career spanned teaching, research, and political turbulence, culminating in posthumous publications that solidified his legacy. However, his work was marred by a posthumous scandal involving theft and plagiarism by his former assistant, Francesco Antommarchi.

Paolo Mascagni was born on January 25, 1755, in Pomarance (near Volterra), Italy, to Aurelio Mascagni and Elisabetta Burroni. Some accounts place his birthplace in the nearby village of Castelleto. He received his early education at home, focusing on philosophy, literature, physics, and mathematics, before enrolling at the University of Siena to study medicine. Mascagni graduated with a medical degree in 1777. He was appointed assistant prosector to the anatomist Pietro Tabarrani (1702 - 1779). Following Tabarrani's death, he succeeded him as anatomy lecturer at the University of Siena.

Mascagni's career was marked by academic accolades and political challenges. In 1796, he was elected a corresponding member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and in 1798, he became president of the “Accademia dei Fisiocritici”(see  end notes) in Siena. His Jacobin sympathies during the French occupation of Tuscany in 1799 led to his appointment as superintendent of arts, sciences, and charitable institutions, but after the French were expelled, he faced arrest and seven months in prison. Freed by royal decree in 1801, Mascagni was appointed professor of anatomy at the University of Pisa and a lecturer at the Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova in Florence. By 1807, he held the chair of anatomy at the University of Florence, where he also taught anatomy to artists, painters, and sculptors. As a result of his interest in human anatomy and art, the book “Anatomia per uso degli studiosi di scultura e pittura. Opera postuma” (Anatomy for the use of students of sculpture and painting) was published in 1816, one year after his death.

An accomplished artist himself, Mascagni collaborated with sculptor Clemente Susini (1754 – 1814) to create approximately 800 anatomical wax models, some of which are preserved in European museums: Museo La Specola, Florence, Italy; Museum Josephinum, Viena, Austria, etc. He also mentored Sardinian anatomist Francesco Antonio Boi (1767 – 1850), contributing to wax models now held in the Museo Archeologico Nazionale in Cagliari, Italy.

Mascagni's innovative techniques, such as injecting mercury into lymphatic vessels for visualization, allowed him to map a large part of the human lymphatic system, disproving earlier theories and highlighting its role in absorption and pathology. He is also credited with the early discovery of meningeal lymphatic vessels, later confirmed in modern studies (2014–2017). Mascagni died of sepsis on October 19, 1815, in Chiusdino, Italy.

Mascagni's publications blend scientific precision with artistic illustration. His 1784 work,” Prodrome d'un ouvrage sur le systeme des vaisseaux lymphatiques” (Initial notes on a work on the system of the lymphatic vessels), detailed his research on the lymphatic vessels and earned a prize from the Paris Academy of Sciences. This was followed by his 1787 publication “Vasorum lymphaticorum corporis humani historia et iconographia” (History and images of the lymphatic vessels of the human body), featuring 41 copperplates that provided the first complete description of the lymphatic system.

His most famous work was published after his death. He wanted to be able to depict the human anatomy in layers on a 5.9 ft. full-size person. Since this was not possible (see end notes), he worked with the artist and engraver Antonio Serantoni (1780 – 1837) to prepare three images of each plate in what is today known as the largest anatomy book ever published. Each page was printed in what is known as “double elephant folio”. To draw each plate, he dissected human bodies with the help of his assistant François (Francesco) Carlo Antommarchi (1780 – 1838).

After his death, with the help of family members and three professors on the Faculty at Pisa University (see end notes), his magnum opus “Icones Anatomiae Universae” (Images of Universal Anatomy”, was released in nine fascicles from 1823 to 1832, comprising 44 hand-colored copperplates and duplicates of each image (44 additional white and black pages) with symbols to identify each anatomical structure. The images depicted life-size layered views of the human body, from muscles to skeleton. These plates, engraved by Serantoni and others, covered the skeleton, viscera, cardiovascular and nervous systems, and more.

Because of the size, and the need to hand-color each of the 44 plates, and the publishing in fascicles, not many of these books were printed. The total number of the prints is unknown. What we do know is that today there are only 16 surviving complete copies of this incredible book, one of which can be seen at the Henry R. Winkler Center for the History of the Health Professions at the University of Cincinnati Medical College.

Following Mascagni's death, a scandal erupted involving his former prosector, Francesco Antommarchi. He took three sets of Mascagni's anatomical plates with him to St. Helena in 1815, where he served as Napoleon's physician. Upon Napoleon's death he stole Napoleon's death mask and passed it as his, attempting to make copies for sale. Defying a court ruling, Antommarchi published an unauthorized edition in Paris between 1823 and 1826. This version used 45 lithographed plates, omitting 24 figures from Mascagni's original and featuring inferior quality compared to the copper engravings. The theft and plagiarism by Antommarchi marred Mascagni’s vision. Only 8 of these books we published, one is lost, 6 are in private hands and the last one is in a library in Colombia.

Dr. Miranda during his presentation at the
XLIII  Anatomy Meeting in Chile

Personal note: Research on Paolo Mascagni has been important for me in the search for larger anatomical images. With the help of the University of Cincinnati Daniel Harrison Medical Library, I was able to use scans of Mascagni’s book and digitally join the images to present them as Mascagni intended. These full-size images are now part of my library and the library of my good friend Dr. Randall K. Wolf. The full-size image can also be seen at the Anatomy Learning Lab of the University of Cincinnati.

In 2023 I was invited to lecture on this topic at the Vesalius Triennial AEIMS, Antwerp – Belgium, and the same year at the XLIII Congreso Chileno de Anatomía.

End notes:

1. The “Accademia dei Fisiocritici” was founded in 1691 and is the second oldest scientific society in the world, second only to the “Fellowship of the Royal Society” of London, England, founded in 1660.

2. Andrea Vaccá-Berlinghieri (1772-1826) Professor of Surgery, Giacomo Barzellotti (1768-1839) Professor of Surgery, Giovanni Rosini (1776-1855) Professor of Eloquence. The publisher was Nicolaum Capurro.

Sources

1. “Mascagni. Paolo” Stefano Arieti. Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani - Volume 71 (2008)
2. "Art in science: Giovanni Paolo Mascagni and the art of anatomy". Di Matteo, N; Tarabella, V.; et al. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2015 Mar;473(3):783-8.
3. "Books at Iowa: The Great Anatomy of Paolo Mascagni". Eimas, Richard
4. “The Anatomia Universa (1823) of Paolo Mascagni (1755–1815): The memory of a masterpiece in the history of anatomy after two centuries” Orsini, D; Saverino. D; Martini, M. Translational Research in Anatomy Vol 35, 2024, 100285 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tria.2024.100285.
5. “The “prince of anatomists” Paolo Mascagni and the modernity of his approach to teaching through the anatomical tables of his Anatomia universa. A pioneer and innovator in medical education at the end of the 18th century and the creator of unique anatomica” Martini, M; Orsini, D. Italian Journal of Anatomy and Embryology. 
6. “Una autobiografia inedita di Paolo Mascagni relativa specialmente al periodo delle rivoluzioni politiche avvenute in Toscana alla fine del sec. XVIII ed alle persecuzioni subite in tale epoca dal Mascagni stesso” Guerritore, T.G. 1928 Atti della Accademia dei Fisiocritici 10(3) 3-24

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Published: December 23, 2025

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UPDATED: The sinuatrial node, is also known as the "sinoatrial node", "SA node" or by its eponym, the "node of Keith and Flack". It is the initial component of the conduction system of the heart.

It is a small nodule of cardiac muscle tissue, somewhat horseshoe-shaped that is found at the junction of the superior vena cava and the right atrium. Because of the inherent automaticity and rhythmical contractions of the SA node, it acts as the main pacemaker of the heart, being the base for normal heart beat, also known as "sinus rhythm"

It receives blood supply from the SA node artery, usually the first or second branch that arises off the right coronary artery. The SA node artery is a long vessel that passes between the right atrium and the ascending aorta on its way to the SA node.

The SA node receives innervation from both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. The parasympathetic innervation is by way of the vagus nerve, the X^th cranial nerve. The sympathetic innervation is by way of the cardiac nerves, a plexus that has its origin in the ventral rami of the first four thoracic spinal nerves (T1-T4).

The SA node was discovered in 1906 by Martin W.  Flack (1882-1931) and Arthur Keith (1866-1955). They named it originally the sinoauricular node.

Further studies by Cox (2020) have demonstrated that the SA node is not a single area of the right atrium, but rather expansive areas that beat at different beats per minute depending on the cardiac demand. 

 “Cardiac anatomy pertinent to the catheter and surgical treatment of atrial fibrillation”. Cox. JL et al J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 2020 Aug;31(8):2118-2127. doi: 10.1111/jce.14440. 

Click on the image for a larger version. Image modified from the original: "3D Human Anatomy: Regional Edition DVD-ROM." Courtesy of Primal Pictures

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Written by: Efrain A. Miranda, Ph.D.

Published: December 15, 2025

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The term “Bachmann’s bundle” refers to an eponymic structure associated with Jean George Bachmann (1877-1959) a French physician and physiologist. The proper anatomical term for this structure is “interatrial bundle” (Lat. fasciculus interatrialis).

In 1916 Bachmann published a paper titled “The Inter-Auricular Time Interval” in the American Journal of Physiology. He measured activation times between the right and left atria and demonstrated that interruption of this distinct anterior interatrial muscular band resulted in delayed left atrial activation. He concluded that this band constituted the principal route for rapid interatrial conduction. The image, from his original publication, shows a dog’s heart with Bachmann’s bundle.

Bachmann’s bundle is a broad, flat band of atrial myocardium that crosses the superior aspect of the interatrial sulcus. It extends from the right atrium close to the junction of the right atrial appendage and the superior vena cava, and courses leftward across the interatrial groove to insert into the base of the left atrial appendage and the anterosuperior left atrial wall. The bundle is well-delineated and in most cases, a fine fatty layer is interposed between the underlying myocardium and the bundle.

This bundle contains predominantly longitudinally oriented myocardial fibers, aiding in fast passage of the electrical depolarization from the right atrium to the left atrium. This explains why, under normal conditions, the left atrium contracts only milliseconds after the right atrium.

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When Bachmann’s bundle is intact, left atrial activation is almost simultaneous with the right atrium. If it is damaged, it can cause varying degrees of interatrial block (IAB), and electrical conduction must proceed through other less effective pathways, resulting in atrial dyssynchrony and altered cardiac rhythm. Advanced IAB is strongly associated with atrial fibrillation, left atrial mechanical dysfunction, and increased risk of stroke even in sinus rhythm.

IAB can be caused by fibrosis, fatty infiltration, atrial dilation, aging, ischemia, and iatrogenic damage in prior cardiac surgery or ablation. All these preferentially affect the anterosuperior interatrial region, explaining the bundle’s vulnerability.

Bachmann’s bundle shows some bifurcations, helping to distribute the depolarization to the left atrium. The image, from Testut & Latarjet (1931), shows one of these bifurcations (yellow arrows). The bundle splits around the base of the left atrial appendage (LAA).

Historically, all pacemakers terminal wires have been implanted in the right atrium. but the potential dysfunction of Bachmann's bundle would require biatrial pacing, which is not used today.

Sources and references
1. Bachmann G. “The inter-auricular time interval”. Am J Physiol. 1916;41:309–320.
2. Hurst JW. “Profiles in Cardiology: Jean George Bachmann (1877–1959)”. Clin Cardiol. 1987;10:185–187.
3. Lemery R, Guiraudon G, Veinot JP. “Anatomic description of Bachmann’s bundle and its relation to the atrial septum”. Am J Cardiol. 2003;91:148–152.
4. Antonio Bayés de Luna, Albert Massó-van Roessel, Luis Alberto Escobar Robledo, The Diagnosis and Clinical Implications of Interatrial Block, European Cardiology Review 2015;10(1):54–9
5. Knol WG, de Vos CB, Crijns HJGM, et al. “The Bachmann bundle and interatrial conduction” Heart Rhythm. 2019;16:127–133.
6. “Iatrogenic biatrial flutter. The role of the Bachmann’s bundle” Constán E.; García F., Linde, A.. Complejo Hospitalario de Jaén, Jaén. Spain
7. "Tratado de Anatomia Humana" Testut et Latarjet 8th Ed. 1931 Salvat Editores, Spain
8. 4. Rigamonti F, Shah DC. "Bachmann Bundle Block Occurring During Radiofrequency Ablation at the Inter-Atrial Septum" J Clin Med. 2012;15(9):263.
9. Zhang Y, Wu F, Gao Y, Wu N, Yang G, Li M, Zhou L, Xu D, Chen M. "Bachmann bundle impairment following linear ablation of left anterior wall: impact on left atrial function". Int J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2022 Jan;38(1):41-50. 

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Written by: Efrain A. Miranda, Ph.D.

Published: December 12, 2025

This article is part of the series "A Moment in History" where we honor those who have contributed to the growth of medical knowledge in the areas of anatomy, medicine, surgery, and medical research.

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Jean George Bachmann (1877–1959) was a French physician–physiologist whose experimental work in the early twentieth century provided the first clear functional description of a preferential interatrial conduction pathway. This structure, eponymically named “Bachmann’s bundle”, plays a central role in normal atrial activation and in the pathophysiology of interatrial block and atrial arrhythmias.

As a young man, Bachmann served as a merchant sailor, crossing the Atlantic multiple times. He emigrated to the United States in 1902 and earned his medical degree at the top of his class from Jefferson Medical College in Philadelphia in 1907. He stayed at this Medical College as a demonstrator and physiologist. In 1910, he joined Emory University in Atlanta. Between 1917 -1918 he served as a medical officer in the US Army. He retired from Emory in 1947 and continued his private medical practice until his death in 1959.

On the personal side, Bachmann was a man of many talents: a polyglot, he was fluent in German, French, Spanish and English. He was a chef in his own right and occasionally worked as a chef in international hotels. In fact, he paid his tuition at Jefferson Medical College, working both as a chef and as a language tutor.

The intrinsic cardiac conduction system was a major focus of cardiovascular research in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The atrioventricular (AV) node was discovered and described by Sunao Tawara and Karl Albert Aschoff in 1906, and the sinoatrial node by Arthur Keith and Martin Flack in 1907.

While the connections that distribute the electrical impulse from the AV node to the ventricles were known through the works of Wilhelm His Jr, in 1893 and Jan Evangelista Purkinje in 1839, the mechanism by which electrical impulses spread between the atria remained uncertain.

In 1916 Bachmann published a paper titled “The Inter-Auricular Time Interval” in the American Journal of Physiology. Bachmann measured activation times between the right and left atria and demonstrated that interruption of a distinct anterior interatrial muscular band resulted in delayed left atrial activation. He concluded that this band constituted the principal route for rapid interatrial conduction.

Subsequent anatomical and electrophysiological studies confirmed the importance of the structure described by Bachmann, which came to bear his name. Bachmann’s bundle is now recognized as a key determinant of atrial activation patterns, and its dysfunction is associated with interatrial block, atrial fibrillation, and abnormal P-wave morphology. His work remains foundational in both basic cardiac anatomy and clinical electrophysiology.

Sources and references
1. Bachmann G. “The inter-auricular time interval”. Am J Physiol. 1916;41:309–320.
2. Hurst JW. “Profiles in Cardiology: Jean George Bachmann (1877–1959)”. Clin Cardiol. 1987;10:185–187.
3. Lemery R, Guiraudon G, Veinot JP. “Anatomic description of Bachmann’s bundle and its relation to the atrial septum”. Am J Cardiol. 2003;91:148–152.
4. "Remembering the canonical discoverers of the core components of the mammalian cardiac conduction system: Keith and Flack, Aschoff and Tawara, His, and Purkinje" Icilio Cavero and Henry Holzgrefe Advances in Physiology Education 2022 46:4, 549-579.
5. Knol WG, de Vos CB, Crijns HJGM, et al. “The Bachmann bundle and interatrial conduction” Heart Rhythm. 2019;16:127–133.
6. “Iatrogenic biatrial flutter. The role of the Bachmann’s bundle” Constán E.; García F., Linde, A.. Complejo Hospitalario de Jaén, Jaén. Spain
7. Keith A, Flack M. The form and nature of the muscular connections between the primary divisions of the vertebrate heart. J Anat Physiol 41: 172–189, 1907.

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Written by: Efrain A. Miranda, Ph.D.

Published: December 03, 2025

Homeostasis is the coordinated set of physiological mechanisms that preserve a stable internal bodily environment (through feedback-controlled regulatory processes) despite fluctuations in the external environment. The concept applies to many dynamic regulations of physiological variables such as body temperature, pH, electrolyte balance, osmolarity, blood glucose, etc.

Claude Bernard (1813–1878) introduced the concept of a “milieu intérieur” the “internal environment” in 1865 where he stated “La fixité du milieu intérieur est la condition de la vie libre et indépendante.” (The constancy of the internal environment is the condition for a free and independent life). Walter B. Cannon (1871–1945) formally coined the term homeostasis in 1929. In his reasoning to name these processes under one name he used the Greek term "ομοιόσταση" [omeóstasí) meaning "constant & stable" or "similar & standing still" referring to a constant (internal) environment.

Disruption of homeostatic processes can contribute to disease states such as diabetes mellitus (failure of glucose homeostasis), heart failure (impaired circulatory stability), heat stroke and/or hypothermia (thermoregulatory failure), hyponatremia or hypernatremia (electrolyte imbalance), etc.

For additional information here is an article from the National Library of Medicine.

Sources: 
1. Claude Bernard, "Introduction à l’étude de la médecine expérimentale" (1865). 
2. “Organization for physiological homeostasis” Cannon W. B.; Physiol Rev. 1929; 9:399–431.
3. "Textbook of Medical Physiology"; Guyton, Arthur C and Hall, John E ISBN: 0721659446 USA: W.B. Saunders, 1996.
4. “Homeostasis and Body Fluid Regulation: An End Note”. De Luca LA Jr, David RB, Menani JV. Neurobiology of Body Fluid Homeostasis: Transduction and Integration. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press/Taylor & Francis; 2014. Chapter 15 

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Written by: Efrain A. Miranda, Ph.D.

Published: October 01, 2025

Hits: 1176

During the last year the number of artificial intelligence (AI) anatomical and surgical images found in websites and social media (Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, etc.) has grown exponentially. The same has happened with posts and articles from so-called experts targeting the public, medical students, and health professionals. Unfortunately, many of these have glaring anatomical errors (1). The reason for this trend is an unscrupulous race to obtain an increased number of followers which leads to monetization of a website, posts, individuals, or groups.

The authors using AI prompts that create these images publish them as fast as they are produced without a thought as to the correctness of what’s being created by AI. Their followers, also without a thought or question of the content or image, like, share, copy and distribute these on the Internet. An example is the publication (now retracted) of rat stem cells using AI imagery. The image generated is of such bad taste, yet it was peer-reviewed and published. The image  shows a rat with large genitalia. I cannot in good conscience publish the image here. For more information see “Sources” 2, 3 (a newspaper article on the problem), and the publisher's retraction.

Another glaring example is this video that shows the heart valves in action. It is not accurate. The movement and synchrony of the valves is wrong, they do not open, the pulmonary valve, which normally has three leaflets, shows four. The coronary arteries are in the wrong location and there an extra coronary on the right side. No one could live with that aortic valve. Yet, this image has 10.K likes and 2.5K shares! Ignorance is being shared. Just because it looks sexy, it does not mean that it is correct! (1).

The problem is that these websites and images are being used by health care professionals, students, and medical industry training groups without questioning the accuracy of the information being copied and redistributed externally and internally in training documents. This is not an uninformed statement. I have seen it personally, not in one, but in several companies.

The pressure that training groups in the medical arena and in other industries have is to reduce costs and training time. For those of you who know me and whom I have trained, you may recall how two decades ago training for a surgical devices representative could take six, ten weeks, and sometimes longer. I do know of one company that required a six-month internship before considering someone ready! Many of those who underwent this training are today in high-level corporate positions or by now have retired very well.

Today, the race is on to reduce face-to-face training time because it is perceived to be expensive, but the cost of poor and inaccurate training for a company is much, much more expensive! Other trends are the use of computer-based training (reduces cost), and reducing the amount of information passed on to the trainee (reduces time). The interesting situation here is that there are forces within these companies that are uninterested in learning more, just training enough to do a basic job.

Another alarming trend is that knowledge acquired in training is geared toward acing the internal tests (checking the boxes) and not necessarily geared toward working use of that knowledge when interacting with a medical professional.

The need to generate training material forces many to copy and paste images and concepts from the Internet. Just because a concept is available on the Internet does not make it correct. In fact, there are many reputable websites and books that have erroneous information. Here is an example from a medical devices company that shows “anatomical positions” (there is only one anatomical position) when the image should be labeled “surgical positions”. If you click on the image you will see a larger image with corrections.

The next image by a reputable medical illustrator shows the groups of ribs, but there is a mistake: False ribs are only 8 – 10, not 8-12! Yet this image is being used for training. I do not know if this image was incorrectly labeled by a third party.

I have seen many companies give a sales representative, manager, engineer, or other employee the responsibility to develop presentations and computer-based training, and what do they do? Go on the Internet for information. Here is where that computer acronym becomes a painful reality: GIGO “garbage in, garbage out”. For me, this is unacceptable, as this could affect a patient!

The only way to ensure the information is correct is to use an expert (but of course that’s not free). This leads to another problem: The Dunning-Kruger effect. This is a phenomenon where some people believe that they are much more competent, knowledgeable, or capable than they really are. Furthermore, they convince their peers and their company of it. David Dunning and Justin Kruger In their 1999 article coined the term “unskilled and unaware of it”, which is sadly becoming commonplace today.

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Another example of these AI generated images is this view of the spine, spinal cord and spinal nerves and branches. The zygapophysial joints look fused (they are not), the dural (thecal) sac fills the vertebral canal (it does not), the spinal nerve and its branches are wrong. Interestingly, I did comment on the mistakes in the image to the author. The answer I received was: ”the more easy the illustration, the more the students will get into it. A complicated high info video may scare undergraduate freshers. That's why I post things in simple”. So, is it correct to teach something wrong? Call me old-fashioned, but I do not think so.

I could go on and on with these examples. Case in point: Image 1 is an AI generated image of the vagus nerve. It is wrong on so many levels! Contrast that with image 2, which is a public domain image from the 1794 “Tabulae Neurologicae” by Antonio Scarpa. The arrow shows the right vagus nerve.

Text available online should not be copied without ensuring that it is correct. An example: “The lungs are enclosed by the pleural sacs, which are attached to the mediastinum”. The first part is correct, each lung is contained in a separate pleural sac (only 86% of the time, the rest of us may have a communication between both pleural sacs). But the pleural sacs are not attached to the mediastinum! The mediastinum is a concept, the region between the pleural sacs, not a real structure.

Lastly, there are copyright issues where it has become so simple to highlight, copy, and paste that many do not think twice about using proprietary text and images without considering the consequences of this activity. One of the most used and abused books is Frank Netter’s Atlas of Human Anatomy. You can see it all over the Internet in posts that appear daily. This is a technique to increase traffic and clicks. Just because it was published in one of these social media posts, does not mean that we can freely use it in training materials. This abuse is rampant in social media where so-called experts copy and paste images from books and other websites. 

Additionally, these deepfake "experts" are generating click-bait videos that use audio tracks (probably also AI generated from text) scaring and fooling people on social media.

The Internet is an extremely powerful tool, yet it is important to remember that not everything on the Internet is true, accurate, and readily available for copy and paste functions. Not all information should be believed at face value. I sincerely hope that this trend changes.

Why do I think this is so important? In the medical devices industry our first responsibility is to the patient and to be able to provide the best care. A healthy distrust of every bit of information we use, and investing time and resources to attain accuracy will help us toward this objective.

Following are some additional examples, some so fake as to be hilarious, but someone is watching them and believing what they are seeing and hearing. 

 The first video shows structures inferior to the transverse colon that do not exist, besides that, peristaltic movements are not like that... it looks more like heart contractions! The second video shows a moving thyroid gland and the vascular and nerve structures are all wrong! The third one is ridiculously wrong!! These videos hare captioned in Spanish, but you can find the same in any other language. 

Personal note: I have purposely tried to avoid identifying individuals, websites, companies, etc. while writing this article. I have also decided to add this AI generated image to my list of pet peeves.

"The whole problem with the world is that fools and fanatics are always so certain of themselves, and wiser people so full of doubts.”
Bertrand Russel

Sources:
1. “It looks sexy, but it is wrong. Tensions in creativity and accuracy using genAi for biomedical visualization” Zimman, R; Saharan, S; McGill, G; Garrison, L. 2025 https://arxiv.org/pdf/2507.14494
2. “RETRACTED “Cellular functions of spermatogonial stem cells in relation to JAK/STAT signaling pathway” Guo,X; Dong, L; Hao, D. Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology. 2024 PDF Link here 
3. “AI-generated nonsense about rat with giant penis published by leading scientific journal” The Telegraph, 2024.
4. “Emotionally unskilled, unaware, and uninterested in learning more: Reactions to feedback about deficits in emotional intelligence” Sheldon, O. J., Dunning, D., & Ames, D. R. (2014). Journal of Applied Psychology, 99(1), 125–137. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034138
5. “Unskilled and unaware of it: How difficulties in recognizing one's own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments” Kruger, J., & Dunning, D. (1999). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1121–1134. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1121
6. “Chapter 5- The Dunning–Kruger Effect: On Being Ignorant of One's Own Ignorance” Olson, HM; Zanna, MP. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (2011) – 44: 247-296 https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-385522-0.00005-6 (these are snippets, not the whole chapter)
7. "How people are being tricked by deepfake doctor videos on social media" New York Post July 17, 2024
8. "Positioning in Anesthesia and Surgery" Martin, JT; Warner, MA 3rd Ed. 1997 USA W.B. Saunders